Young-Hwa Byun (yhbyun@korea.kr),
- Climate Change Research Team, National Institute of Meteorological Sciences, 33 Seohobuk-ro, Seogwipo-si, Jeju-do, Korea.
Jin-Uk Kim (jukim86@korea.kr),
- Climate Change Research Team, National Institute of Meteorological Sciences, 33 Seohobuk-ro, Seogwipo-si, Jeju-do, Korea.
National Institute of Meteorological Sciences (NIMS) is participating in the CORDEX with a regional climate model, HadGEM3-RA which is based on the global atmospheric HadGEM3 of the Met Office Hadley Centre (MOHC). Configuration of HadGEM3-RA is almost same as the HadGEM3-A (See sections 3 and 4), except that the dynamic settings are taken from the operational limited area model. Detailed descriptions for dynamics core and physical packages are described in Davies et al. (2005) and Martin et al. (2006).
The configuration of the model domain follows a protocol of the Coordinated Regional climate Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX) for Asia (Giorgi et al., 2009). The model domain includes East Asia, India, and the Western Pacific Ocean, as shown in Fig. 1. The number of grid points is 396 (west-east) by 251 (north-south), with a horizontal resolution 0.22 degree (approximately 25km). The buffer zone for lateral boundary conditions is 11 grids at each direction, where is located between outer dotted line in Fig. 1.
The dynamic core of HadGEM3-RA is a nonhydrostatic, fully compressible, deep atmosphere formulation using a terrain-following, height-based vertical coordinate. It includes semi-Lagrangian advection of all prognostic variables except density, permitting relatively long time steps to be used at high resolution. The model uses the Arakawa-C grid in which the zonal and meridional wind components are staggered as well as the momentum and thermodynamic variables. HadGEM3-RA runs on a Charney-Phillips vertical grid in which the momentum and thermodynamic variables are staggered (Davies et al., 2005; Martin et al., 2006).
Model physics are summarized in Table 1. Detailed descriptions for dynamics core and physical packages are described in Davies et al. (2005) and Martin et al. (2006).
The experiments are conducted for 131 years; 36-year simulation for the current (1970-2005) climate and two types of 95-year simulations for the future (2006-2100) climate. The current climate simulation is driven from the historical run of the Atmosphere-Ocean coupled Hadley Center Global Environmental Model version 2 (HadGEM2-AO) simulation of the National Institute of Meteorological Research (NIMR) (Baek et al., 2012). For the future climate simulations, two different boundary conditions from the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 2.6 and 8.5 scenarios of HadGEM2-AO. The RCP 2.6 scenario form the low end of the scenario literature in terms of emissions and radiative forcing (DP van Vuuren et al., 2011). The RCP 8.5 scenario is characterized by increasing greenhouse gas emissions over time and is representative of scenarios in the literature which result in high greenhouse gas concentration levels (Riahi et al., 2011).
Baek, H. J., and Coauthors, 2012 : Climate change in the 21st Century simulated by HadGEM2-AO under representative concentration pathways. Asia-Pacific J. Atmos. Sci. (to be submitted)
Davies, T., M. J. P. Cullen, A. J. Malcolm, M. H. Mawson, A. Staniforth, A. A. White, and N. Wood, 2005 : A new dynamical core for the Met Office’s global and regional modeling of the atmosphere. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 131,1759-1782.
DP van Vuuren et al., 2011: RCP2.6: exploring the possibility to keep global mean temperature increase below 2℃. Climatic Change, 109, 95-116, doi:10.1007/s10584-011-0152-3.
Giorgi, F., C. Jones, and G. R. Asrar, 2009 : Addressing climate information needs at the regional level: The CORDEX framework. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Bulletin, 58, 175-183.
Martin, G. M., M. A. Ringer, V. D. Pope, A. Jones, C. Dearden, and T. J. Hinton, 2006 : The physical properties of the atmosphere in the new Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model (HadGEM1). Part I: Model description and global climatology. J. Clim 19, 1274-1302.
Riahi K., S. Rao, V. Krey, C. Cho, V. Chirkov, G. Fischer, G. Kindermann, N. Nakicenovic, and P. Rafaj, 2011 : RCP 8.5 - A scenario of comparatively high greenhouse gas emissions. Climatic Change, 109, 33-57, doi:10.1007/s10584-011-0149-y.
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Dong-Hyun Cha (dhcha@unist.ac.kr),
- School of urban and environmental engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, UNIST Gil 50, Eonyang-Eup, Ulju-Gun, Ulsan, South Korea
Seoul National University Regional Climate Model (SNURCM) (Lee et al., 2004) are based on version 5 of the Penn State University/National Center for Atmospheric Research Meso-scale Model (MM5) (Grell et al., 1994) and the community land model version 3 (CLM3) as an advanced and comprehensive land surface model. The spectral nudging technique (von Storch et al., 2000) was performed as an alternative to the modified relaxation method (Liang et al., 2001) reducing systematic bias. Planetary boundary layer scheme of the Yonsei University (YSU) was added to the SNURCM for better simulation of precipitation over the ocean (Cha et al., 2008). SNURCM and Seoul National University Mesol-scale Model version 5 (SNU-MM5) are the same models.
The model domain (Fig.1) follows a protocol of the Coordinated Regional climate Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX) for East Asia, including north-south direction from the Indochina Peninsula to Russia and east-west direction from India to western Pacific. The number of grid points is 405 (west-east) by 260 (north-south) horizontal grids centering at 34.60°N and 116.57°E with a nominal horizontal resolution of 0.22°. A 24-level terrain-following (sigma) vertical grid from the surface to the model top of 70 hPa is used.
SNURCM dynamics is based on the MM5. The MM5 uses a nonhydrostatic primitive equation system with a terrain-following sigma vertical coordinate, which is a well-studied mesoscale model that has been applied widely in the atmospheric study. A spectral nudging technique of von Storch et al. (2000) was implemented for lateral boundary handling. The technique is applied to the entire model domain, while the relaxation method is applied only to the lateral buffer zone.
The physical parameterization schemes used in this study are the Kain-Fritsch cumulus convective parameterization scheme (Kain and Fritsch, 1990), the Reisner II explicit moisture scheme (Reisner et al., 1998), the CCM2 radiative transfer scheme (Briegleb, 1992), the CLM3 land surface model (Bonan et al., 2002), and the YSU planetary boundary layer scheme (Hong et al., 2006). (Table 1)
For evaluation experiment, present 37-year regional climate (1979-2015) forced by ERA-Interim is produced. For the historical experiment, present 26-year regional climate (1980-2005) forced by HadGEM2-AO is produced. Also, 95-year future climate simulations (2006-2100) were produced forced by HadGEM2-AO and representative concentration pathways (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5 scenarios. These scenarios are the latest emission scenarios recommended to use for the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of IPCC. For historical and RCP experiments, NOAH LSM is used as a land surface model.
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Hong, S. Y., Noh, Y., and Dudhia, J.: A new vertical diffusion package with an explicit treatment of entrainment processes, Monthly Weather Review, 134, 2318-2341, Doi 10.1175/Mwr3199.1, 2006.
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Reisner, J., Rasmussen, R. M., and Bruintjes, R. T.: Explicit forecasting of supercooled liquid water in winter storms using the MM5 mesoscale model, Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 124, 1071-1107, DOI 10.1256/smsqj.54803, 1998.
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Myoung-Seok Suh (sms416@kongju.ac.kr)
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Kongju National University, 182 Shinkwan-dong, Gongju-city 314-701, ChungCheongnam-do, South Korea.
The Regional Climate Model version 4 (RegCM4) used in this study, developed by the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), is the latest version with some noteworthy improvements, such as the coupling of a sophisticated land surface model, community land model 3 (http://www.ictp.it/research/esp/models/regcm4.aspx). Compared to RegCM3, RegCM4 includes new land surface, planetary boundary layer, and air-sea flux schemes, a mixed convection and tropical band configuration, modifications to the pre-existing radiative transfer and boundary layer schemes, and a full upgrade of the model code aimed towards improved flexibility, portability, and user friendliness. A detailed description of RegCM4 is given by Giorgi et al. (2012).
The model domain (Fig. 1), set based on the CORDEX Ⅱ East Asia domain, covers most of Asia, the western Pacific, the Bay of Bengal, and the South China Sea. The number of grid points in Lambert Conformal map projection is 394 (west-east) by 249 (north-south), with a horizontal resolution of 25 km. A 23-sigma (50 hPa) vertical grid is used. A summary for the simulation environment including the physical schemes is shown in Table 1.
The basic model dynamics have remained the same as in RegCM3, which was essentially the same as that of the previous version RegCM2 (Giorgi et al. 1993a, b). RegCM4 is thus a hydrostatic, compressible, sigma-p vertical coordinate model run on an Arakawa B-grid in which wind and thermodynamical variables are horizontally staggered. A time-splitting explicit integration scheme is used in which the 2 fastest gravity modes are first separated from the model solution and then integrated with smaller time steps. This allows the use of a longer time step for the rest of the model. Essentially, the model dynamics are the same as that of the hydrostatic version of MM5 (Grell et al. 1994).
in this study, the MIT-Emanuel (1991) cumulus parameterization scheme and the NCAR CLM3.5 (Oleson et al., 2008) land surface model, which showed relatively better simulation skills in South Korea, were selected based on the 25 years sensitivity experiments (Kim et al., 2017). The Holtslag et al. (1990) scheme and NCAR CCM3 (Kiehl et al., 1996) radiation scheme were used for the planetary boundary layer. To minimize the systematic errors that occur in long-term simulations over large domain, spectral nudging was applied to RegCM4 (Von Storch et al., 2000). We used the default of RegCM4 for the other physics.
In this study, two types of simulations using RegCM4 were performed. One is a current climate, that is the evaluation and historical simulation of RegCM4. Evaluation simulation was forced by ERA-Interim data, and historical simulation was forced by HadGEM2-AO produced by the National Institute of Meteorological Research (NIMR)/Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA). The other is future climate simulation for the projection of future climate under the two emission scenarios, representative concentration pathways (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5. The simulation periods for the current and future climate simulations are 27-year (from 1979 to 2005) and 95-year (from 2006 to 2100), respectively. RCP scenarios are the latest emission scenarios recommended to use for the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of IPCC. To prepare the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) with new global climate change scenarios based on RCP, the NIMR/ KMA simulated the several experiments such as preindustrial control run, historical run, and RCP scenarios (4.5, 8.5) runs for the long term projections recommended by CMIP5 using the coupled global atmosphere-ocean model, HadGEM2-AO. Details of HadGEM2-AO are given by Collins et al. (2011), and the results of the HadGEM2-AO CMIP5 experiment by NIMR/KMA are shown in Baek et al. (2013).
Baek, H.-J., Lee, J. H., Lee, H.-S., Hyun, Y.-K., Cho, C. H., Kwon, W.-T., Marzin, C., Gan, S.-Y., Kim, M.-J., Choi, D.-H., Lee, J. H., Lee, J., C., Boo, K.-O., Kang, H.-S. and Byun, Y.-H., 2013: Climate change in the 21st Century simulated by HadGEM2-AO under representative concentration pathways, Asia-Pacific J. Atmos. Sci., 49(5), 603-618.
Collins, W. J., N. Bellouin, M. Doutriaux-Boucher, N. Gedney, P. Halloran, T. Hinton, J. Hughes, C. D. Jones, M. Joshi, S. Liddicoat, G. Martin, F. O’Connor, J. Rae, C. Senior, S. Sitch, I. Totterdell, A. Wiltshire, and S. Woodward, 2011 : Development and evaluation of an Earth-system model – HadGEM2, Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss., 4(2), 997–1062, doi:10.5194/gmdd-4-997-2011.
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Giorgi, F., E. Coppola, F. Solmon, L. Mariotti, M. B. Sylla, X. Bi, N. Elguindi, G. T. Diro, V. Nair, G. Giuliani, U. U. Turuncoglu, S. Cozzini, I. Güttler, T. A. O’Brien, A. B. Tawfik, A. Shalaby, A. S. Zakey, A. L. Steiner, F. Stordal, L. C. Sloan, and C. Brankovic, 2012 : RegCM4: model description and preliminary test over multi CORDEX domain, Clim. Res., 52, 7-29.
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Joong-Bae Ahn (jbahn@pusan.ac.kr),
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Pusan National University, Jangjeon 2-dong, Geumjeonggu, Busan 46241, Korea.
Yeon-Woo Choi (choiyw@pusan.ac.k.r),
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Pusan National University, Jangjeon 2-dong, Geumjeonggu, Busan 46241, Korea.
In this study, Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF, Skamarock et al. 2008) model version 3.7 is used for regional climate simulation over CORDEX-East Asia phase 2 domain. The WRF is a state-of-the-art atmospheric modeling system which is widely used for both meteorological studies and real-time numerical weather prediction. The model serves a wide range of meteorological applications in the range of spatial scales from tens of meters to thousands of kilometers. The detailed description of WRF model can be found in the website http://www2.mmm.ucar.edu/wrf/users/model.html.
Following the CORDEX East Asia phase 2 framework, the model domain covers East Asia, the Bay of Bengal, South China sea and western North Pacific regions with 25 km horizontal resolution (Figure 1). The model has 30 vertical levels, with the model top at 50 hPa. The number of grid points is 395 (west-east) by 250 (north-south) centering at 34.40°N and 116.57°E. For lateral boundary forcing, 15 grid points at each direction are used for the buffer zone.
In this study, we used the Advanced Research WRF (WRF-ARW) core version 3.7 that is maintained by NCAR's Mesoscale and Microscale Meteorology (MMM) laboratory. The equation set for WRF-ARW is fully compressible non-hydrostatic. It uses mass-based terrain-following coordinate, and Arakawa C-grid staggering. The time integration scheme in the model adopts the third-order Runge-Kutta scheme coupled with a split-explicit 2nd-order time integration scheme for the acoustic and gravity-wave modes. More detailed description of WRF-ARW can be found in the website http://www2.mmm.ucar.edu/wrf/users/docs/wrf-dyn.html.
The physical parameterizations used in this study are the WRF Single-Moment 3-class microphysics scheme (Hong et al., 2004), Betts-Miller-Janjic convection parameterization scheme (BM, Betts and Miller, 1986; Janjic, 1994), Community Atmospheric Model radiation scheme (CAM, Collins et al., 2004), Noah land surface model for land surface process (Chen and Dudhia, 2001), and Yonsei University (YSU) PBL scheme (Hong et al., 2006).
In order to assess the performance of the WRF model in simulating the present-day climate over CORDEX East Asia phase 2 domain, we performed dynamical downscaling using WRF model driven by two lateral boundary forcings: European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecast Interim Reanalysis (ERA-Interim, Simmons et al., 2007) and Max-Planck-Institute Earth System Model at low vertical resolution (MPI-ESM-LR, Giorgetta et al., 2013). For the future climate simulations, MPI-ESM-LR GCM is downscaled using WRF model under the Representative Concentration Pathway scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) within the framework of the CORDEX East Asia phase 2. Model simulations are available for the reference period 1979-2005 and future period 2006-2100. The first two years (1979-1980) for reference simulation is considered as the spin-up period.
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Seung-Ki Min (skmin@postech.ac.kr),
- Division of Environmental Science and Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang 37673, Korea
Donghyun Lee (donhyunlee@postech.ac.kr),
- Division of Environmental Science and Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang 37673, Korea
The Consortium for Small-scale Modeling (COSMO) was formed in October 1998. Its general goal is to develop, improve and maintain a non-hydrostatic limited-area atmospheric model, to be used both for operational and for research applications by the members of the consortium. The CLM Community extended the COSMO-Model to be able to run long-term simulations, the so-called climate mode. The resulting modeling system is called the COSMO-CLM (or CCLM) (https://www.clm-community.eu/). CCLM is internationally used in CORDEX East Asia study (Wang et al., 2013; Huang et al., 2015; Huang et al., 2017). Here we used CCLM 5.0 for downscaling.
Spatial domain of the simulations covers East Asia, India, and Wester Pacific Ocean as shown in figure 1. This configuration follows a protocol of the Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX) for Asia (http://www.cordex.org/domains/region-7-east-asia/). The number of horizontal grid points is 396 (west-east) by 251 (north-south) having 25 km resolution. A 40-level height based hybrid vertical grid (Gal-Chen and Somerville, 1975) is used.
CCLM is based on non-hydrostatic, compressible dynamical equations to avoid restrictions on the spatial scales and the domain size, and application of an efficient numerical method of solution. Coordinate system in CCLM is generalized terrain-following height coordinated with rotated geographical coordinates and user defined grid stretching in vertical.
Grid and sub-grid scale physics are described in various equations based on theoretical assumptions. Table 1 show details in physical parameterization of the CCLM CORDEX East Asia simulations.
We simulated the current climate with CCLM using the boundary forcing of the ERA-Interim reanalysis data (CCLM-ERA) for 37 years (1979-2015) and using the boundary forcing of MPI-ESM-LR historical run (CCLM-MPI) for 27 years (1979-2005). Future climate projections with CCLM were produced using the MPI-ESM-LR boundary forcing for two AR5 representative concentration pathways (RCP) 4.5 and 8.5 scenarios during 95 years (2006-2100).
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